Abstract:[Objectives] Avian breeding biology based on long-term study of populations or individuals is essential for understanding species life-history evolution, population dynamics, and conservation strategies. Here we present results from a long-term individual-based study on the breeding biology of Hair-crested Drongos (Dicrurus hottentottus) in central China, which is important for further understanding how this species adapts to environmental change induced by human activities. [Methods] The study was carried out at Dongzhai National Nature Reserve in southern Henan Province from 2008 to 2024. Nests were located by checking known historical sites and conducting systematic searches. Once nests were found, they were checked every 1 ~ 3 d to record the laying date, clutch size, hatching date, number of nestlings, and number of fledglings. Adult birds were captured using mist nets and marked with a metal ring and a unique combination of color rings. Nestlings were measured and ringed 0 ~ 4 d before fledging. A 50 ~ 100 μl of blood sample was collected from each individual via brachial vein puncture for sex determination and paternity testing. During the incubation and nestling periods, parental breeding behavior was recorded using video cameras placed 20 m from the nests. All analyses were performed in SPSS 27.0.1. Parametric tests were applied if the data distribution conformed to normality (Shapiro-Wilks test), otherwise, nonparametric tests were used for analysis. [Results] Among the 1 227 nest sites located, most were built on Pterocarya stenoptera, Quercus acutissima, and Metasequoia glyptostroboides (Table 1). The laying peaks occurred in late May and early June. Both the incubation period and nestling period lasted around 18 d. Average clutch size was 3.9 eggs, ranging from 2 to 5 with a model of 4. Average brood size was 3.5 chicks, average number of fledglings was 3.2 chicks. Overall, 63.7% of nesting attempts successfully produced at least one fledged young. Nest predation during the nestling period was the main reason for breeding failure. 26.5% of pairs lay replacement clutches after nest failures. The primary and secondary sex ratios of nestlings showed no significant difference at the population level or the individual level. 10.4% of the nestlings were extra-pair offspring, and there was no difference in offspring sex ratio at the population level. The overall survival rate of offspring is 3.3%, with extra-pair offspring (3.1%) showing a similar survival rate to that of within-pair offspring. The average annual survival rate was 56.5% for adult females and 60.9% for adult males. Both males and females exhibited high territorial fidelity and tended to maintain pair bonds. Males are more faithful to their territory than females. [Conclusion] We provided detailed life-history data of the Hair-crested Drongos, a common forest bird species. These findings are crucial for understanding the breeding strategies of this species and how it adapts to future environmental change.

Abstract:[Objectives] Reproduction is a critical phase in the life history of birds, with the selection of an appropriate nest site being paramount to reproductive success. This selection is influenced by a multitude of environmental factors. Accelerated urbanization leads to habitat fragmentation and compression of avian living spaces, compelling birds to adapt swiftly. The impacts of urbanization on birds are multifaceted, resulting in differences in nest site selection and other aspects compared with their rural counterparts. Therefore, investigating the nest site selection of Chinese Blackbirds (Turdus mandarinus) in urban and rural settings is of great importance and necessity, contributing to our understanding of how birds adapt to urbanized environments. [Methods] From May to August 2024 and April to May 2025, we conducted systematic surveys for Chinese Blackbird nests in Huangpi District, Wuhan City, Hubei Province. Nests were surveyed bi-weekly. Upon nest discovery, the internal conditions were recorded, and each nest was sequentially numbered and located in the order of discovery. Following the conclusion of the breeding season, nest characteristic parameters, including inner diameter, outer diameter, cup depth, and nest depth, were measured via a fine measuring tape. Nest site parameters were measured via a measuring tape, while distances beyond the range of the tape were measured via ArcGIS software. A total of 14 nest site parameters related to the reproduction of Chinese Blackbirds were recorded. [Results] During the study period, we recorded the nest characteristic parameters of 62 Chinese Blackbird nests (21 urban nests and 41 rural nests) and 14 nest site parameters of 128 Chinese Blackbird nests (49 urban and 79 rural nests). There were no significant differences in the nest characteristic parameters between urban and rural nests. The distances from nests to trees and farmlands were significantly further for urban nests than for their rural counterparts, and tree height, diameter at breast height, and coverage above the nest were significantly greater for urban nests than for rural nests. Urban Chinese Blackbirds showed a preference for nesting in Camphor Trees (Cinnamomum camphora), whereas rural Chinese Blackbirds nested in a wider variety of tree species. Urban Chinese Blackbirds preferred to nest in taller, more robust trees with better concealment (Table 3). [Conclusion] This study demonstrates that predator avoidance is the primary factor influencing nest site selection for Chinese Blackbirds. Urban Chinese Blackbirds exhibit a preference for taller and more concealed tree canopies to evade predators, particularly feral cats. Foraging considerations also play a crucial role. Rural Chinese Blackbirds tend to nest near farmlands and woodlands, while their urban counterparts rely on green spaces such as parks and urban forests. Urbanization influences nest preferences, leading to a propensity for specific tree species and taller trees. The adaptability of Chinese Blackbirds to urban environments is evident, as exemplified by instances of nesting on utility poles. Future research will delve into the adaptive changes of Chinese Blackbirds across varying degrees of urbanization, thereby contributing theoretical insights to support urban ecological conservation and avian research.

Abstract:[Objectives] The conservation of bird diversity is not only a primary goal of ecological restoration but also an important indicator for guiding and evaluating its effectiveness. As one of the three most polluted lakes in China, Dianchi Lake has undergone extensive wetland restoration in recent years. However, few researchers have systematically investigated its bird diversity to guide effective conservation and further restoration efforts. Therefore, this study synthesizes a decade of field surveys on bird diversity, integrating findings from literature and citizen science of Dianchi Lake. A key objective is to analyze the ecological characteristics of the avian community, thereby generating critical, actionable insights to direct the future wetland restoration efforts in this region. [Methods] The methodology was structured as a two-stage analytical process. Initially, a comprehensive avian checklist for Dianchi Lake was compiled by integrating a decade of field survey data with existing scientific literature and citizen science records. Subsequently, the ecological requirements of the avian community were assessed through a multi-faceted analysis of the species diversity, residency patterns, ecological traits, and trophic niche structure. [Results] A total of 363 species were recorded, comprising 126 waterbird species and 237 forest bird species. Among them, 75 species are classified as nationally protected or are listed as endangered on national or global Red Lists (Fig. 3, Electronic appendix 1). Analysis of residency patterns revealed that waterbirds were predominantly passage and winter migrants, while forest birds were predominantly residents and passage migrants, with the majority of species in both groups being rare or occasional (Table 3). In terms of ecological guilds, the waterbird community was dominated by grallatores, particularly small shorebirds, whereas forest birds were primarily passeres. Correspondingly, the primary trophic niches were aquatic predators for waterbirds and invertivores for forest birds (Fig. 4). [Conclusion] The avian community of Dianchi Lake is characterized by high diversity in residency patterns, ecological guilds, and trophic niches. However, the community structure is uneven, dominated by a small number of dominant and common species alongside a large proportion of rare and occasional visitors. In light of the aforementioned findings, the establishment of a continuous, year-round monitoring regime for avian population dynamics is advised, with specific attention directed towards migratory and overwintering seasons. Furthermore, the construction of a continuous bathymetric gradient extending from swamp zones to deeper waters, alongside the enhancement of the structural complexity and diversity of the aquatic and hygrophilous vegetation community, is advocated to satisfy the specific ecological niches of the avian assemblage.

Abstract:[Objectives] The Hubei Mulinzi National Nature Reserve (HMNNR) is an ecologically significant region with high biodiversity, located in the transition zone from the second to the third step of China’s topography. This study aims to assess the diversity and distribution of medium-to-large-sized mammals and birds in the reserve by camera trap monitoring, with a particular focus on clarifying the relationship between altitudinal gradients and biodiversity. [Methods] From September 2019 to June 2021, 30 camera traps were deployed across habitats in HMNNR. The survey covered different elevations and functional zones. Data analysis included species identification based on morphological characteristics, calculation of the relative abundance index (I_RA), and establishment of species accumulation curves (Fig. 2). The statistical methods applied in this study included species richness estimation and I_RA calculation based on camera trap efforts. [Results] A total of 1 089 independent valid photographs were obtained, recording 14 species of mammals belonging to 10 families of 4 orders and 30 species of birds belonging to 11 families of 4 orders. The dominant mammal orders were Carnivora and Cetartiodactyla, while Passeriformes and Galliformes were the most represented bird orders. Among them, 12 species were classified as second-class National Key Protected Wildlife, including Macaque (Macaca mulatta), Asiatic Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus), Red-Billed Leiothrix (Leiothrix lutea), and Hwamei (Garrulax canorus). Additionally, five species were identified as endemic to China. The most abundant mammalian species based on I_RA were Red-Hipped Squirrel (Dremomys pyrrhomerus, I_RA = 3.60), Wild Boar (Sus scrofa, I_RA = 1.57), and Tufted Deer (Elaphodus cephalophus, I_RA = 1.34). The most frequently recorded birds were Golden Pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus, I_RA = 1.49), Temminck’s Tragopan (Tragopan temminckii, I_RA = 0.36), and Red-Billed Blue Magpie (Urocissa erythroryncha, I_RA = 0.24). Species richness was the highest in the mid-elevation range (1 400 ~ 1 800 m), where the highest I_RA was recorded. The core and buffer zones exhibited greater species diversity and abundance than the experimental zone (Table 2). [Conclusion] The camera trap survey provides updated baseline data on the diversity and distribution of mammals and birds in HMNNR. The results support the mid-domain effect, highlighting the effectiveness of long-term camera trapping in biodiversity monitoring. The findings contribute to the conservation planning and management of this ecologically important reserve. Future studies should expand the survey to cover more habitats and integrate conventional field survey methods with camera trapping for a more comprehensive assessment.

Abstract:[Objectives] The Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) is a class I protected species in China, and its diet is mainly dependent on fish resources within wetland ecosystems. Conventional dietary analysis methods, such as direct observation and gastric content analysis, are limited by challenges in sample accessibility and taxonomic resolution. This study utilized non-invasive DNA metabarcoding to examine dietary shifts between winter and summer in a C. nigra population residing in the Linzhou Qixi River National Wetland Park of Anyang City, Henan Province. [Methods] To obtain high-quality fecal samples of Black Storks for dietary analysis, we developed and implemented a rigorous sampling protocol during two seasons—winter (January) and summer (August)—of 2024. Prior to sampling, we carefully selected roosting sites of Black Storks and thoroughly cleared existing feces from these sites. On sampling days, we first excluded overlapping sites, and then collected the freshest single fecal sample from each designated roosting site. All collections were completed within the same day. A total of 20 fecal samples were obtained across both seasons, with successful DNA amplification achieved in 12 samples. After molecular confirmation of species origin, eight effective fecal DNA samples were ultimately obtained (five in winter and three in summer). DNA from these validated samples underwent amplicon sequencing using 12S rRNA markers to assess seasonal variations in dietary composition, diversity characteristics, and biomarker species. [Results] The findings revealed a trophic spectrum encompassing 2 orders, 3 families, and 14 genera. The analysis of α-diversity metrics indicated no significant seasonal variation in species richness. However, β-diversity analyses (PCoA ordination with PERMANOVA validation) revealed significant changes in dietary composition (Fig. 1), with winter assemblages exhibiting low dispersion in contrast to the increased heterogeneity observed in summer. During winter, the diet was highly specialized, with Hemiculter (Cypriniformes; 98.4% relative abundance) being dominant. In contrast, the summer diet was diverse, including Gnathopogon (22.7%, Cypriniformes), Sarcocheilichthys (19.2%, Cypriniformes), and Pseudobagrus (19.2%, Siluriformes) (Fig. 2). The analytical results from LEfSe and metagenomeSeq further supported the above findings. The specialized dietary strategy in winter might be linked to limited fish activity in cold environments, whereas the diversified dietary strategy in summer benefited from the more abundant resources and expanded habitats during the breeding season (Fig. 3). [Conclusion] The dietary composition of Black Storks exhibits significant seasonal restructuring, which is closely related to the abundance of fish resources. Conservation strategies highlight the need to protect Cypriniformes resources, develop winter emergency strategies, and preserve varied river habitats during summer to support the abundance of benthic fish spawners. This study provides evidence for adaptive management strategies for C. nigra and underscores the potential of molecular ecological tools in the preservation of endangered species.

Abstract:[Objectives] This study aims to clarify the expression patterns and distribution characteristics of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), a key inducible protein in the heat shock response, in the skeletal muscle of Yaks (Bos grunniens) across three altitude gradients. [Methods] Skeletal muscle tissues of Yaks were collected fromthree altitude groups:Hualong Hui Autonomous County (1 900 m, low-altitude group), Haiyan County (3 200 m, mid-altitude group), and Banma County (4 200 m, high-altitude group) in Qinghai Province, China. Quantitative real-time PCR was employed to detect HSP70 mRNA expression in skeletal muscle, while Western blotting and immunohistochemistry were utilized to analyze the expression levels and spatial distribution characteristics of HSP70 protein across three altitude gradients. [Results] The mid-altitude group exhibited minimal HSP70 expression and a complete absence of nuclear immunoreactivity in myofibers. In contrast, both the low- and high-altitude groups showed significantly increased HSP70 expression in Yak skeletal muscle. Immunohistochemistry further revealed that HSP70 was present in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus of muscle fibers, with notable enrichment in the nuclear compartment (Fig. 1). The quantitative real-time PCR and Western blotting revealed that with increasing altitude, both HSP70 mRNA and protein showed a trend of first decreasing and then increasing, indicating an altitude-specific expression threshold (Figs. 4, 5). [Conclusion] These findings demonstrate that HSP70 expression in Yak skeletal muscle follows an altitude-dependent pattern. Furthermore, the observed pattern suggests a threshold effect that may optimize energy allocation. This study elucidates a potential molecular mechanism by which Yaks adapt to the plateau’s hypoxic environment, highlighting the critical role of HSP70 in this process. Additionally, our findings establish a framework for future research into the molecular regulatory network underlying adaptive evolution in plateau-native animals.

Abstract:[Objectives] This study systematically investigated the effects of pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG) on the gut microbiome in mice. [Methods] Twenty-four female mice were randomized into PMSG-treated (5 IU) and control groups (the same volume of sterile normal saline). Following 3-d intervention, we isolated the dominant strain Escherichia sp. GMJ-1 for in vitro growth curve modeling (Gompertz equation), performed full-length 16SrRNA sequencing (PacBio SMRT) of large intestine and small intestine contents, calculated α-diversity indexes (Shannon/Richness/Evenness) and β-diversity index (Unweighted UniFrac PCoA) via QIIME2 with species-level annotation, constructed bacterial networks (|r| > 0.6, P < 0.05) and core bacterial networks (|r| > 0.9, P < 0.01), and analyzed topology parameters. Statistical validation was conducted by t-test, one-way ANOVA (Tukey’s HSD), and PERMANOVA. [Results] The intestinal strain GMJ-1 showed significantly increased maximum growth rate under PMSG treatment (Fig. 1). In the large intestine, PMSG significantly increased the evenness of bacterial community (Fig. 2c) and drove a significant increase in alpha diversity (Fig. 2a). Even though PCoA demonstrated that intestinal segments exerted stronger influence on bacterial community structure than PMSG intervention (Fig. 3, PERMANOVA), PMSG induced the significant increase of Bacteroidetes and decrease of Proteobacteria at the phylum level (Fig. 4a) in the large intestine. Meanwhile, PMSG caused the enrichment of strains with potential metabolic benefits (Fig. 4b) in the large intestine, such as Eisenbergiella uncultured organism with the relative abundance increasing by 196 times. Network analysis revealed PMSG enhanced the complexity (nodes + 24%, edges + 41%) (Figs. 5a, b, Table 1) and the cohesion index (Fig. 6b) of the bacterial network in the large intestine. In addition, PMSG raised the proportion of positive correlation interactions among core bacterial species to 61.11%, increasing the positive relationship with Lactobacillus intestinalis and L. johnsonii as nodes (Figs. 7a, b). In the small intestine, the overall effects of PMSG on the diversity (Figs. 2a ~ c) and composition of the bacterial community at the phylum level (Fig. 4a) in the small intestine were not significant. At the species level, PMSG caused sharp fluctuations in some core bacterial species in the small intestine (Figs. 4c). For example, the relative abundance of Erysipelatoclostridium ramosum decreased by 90%. The robustness of the bacterial network in the small intestine was significantly reduced by PMSG (Fig. 6a), and the negative correlation interaction of the core bacterial species became dominant (53.85%) (Figs. 7c, d). [Conclusion] PMSG might drive the intestinal bacterial community to exhibit a segmental differentiated response of “being optimized in the large intestine - becoming fragile in the small intestine” through both direct promotion and indirect regulation mechanisms. This finding provides a theoretical basis for the development of scientific PMSG medication strategies tailored to animal intestinal segments.

Abstract:On June 25, 2023, two leech specimens were collected from the north bank of Fengquan River Park in Aksu Prefecture, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China (41°08′56″ N, 80°16′52″ E, 1 100 m a.s.l.) (Figs. 1 and 2). The COI gene sequences of the specimens were obtained through extraction and amplification, and then compared with other species sequences in GenBank, followed by manual correction. We constructed a phylogenetic tree based on mitochondrial COI gene sequence (646 bp). The results showed that the collected specimens clustered with Whitmania pigra from other regions (Fig. 3), with a genetic distance ranging from 0.5% to 6.2% (Appendix 2), which was significantly lower than the genetic distance (11.1% ~ 26.5%) between W. pigra and other closely related species within the same family, including both congeneric and non-congeneric taxa (Appendix 3). Combined with morphological comparison, the collected specimens exhibit body size, coloration, patterns, longitudinal stripes, tail sucker size, and reproductive system morphology and structure that are consistent with those of W. pigra. Thus, the collected specimens were identified as W. pigra. Meanwhile, W. pigra is widely distributed across most regions of China and is currently known to occur only in Japan outside China. Therefore, based on the currently known distribution range of W. pigra, the collected sample represents a new distribution record for the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.

Abstract:To investigate the distribution of Chiroptera in the Xizang Autonomous Region of China, a series of field surveys were conducted in 2024. A Coelops bat (GZHU24066) was captured in May from Yadong County (27°20′49.55″ N, 88°59′17.05″ E, 2 413 m elevation) and a Megaerops bat (GZHU24298) was captured in July from Motuo County (29°12′36.86″ N, 95°6′29.16″ E, 739 m elevation). Morphological and cranial measurements were performed, including body weight, head and body length, forearm length, tibia length, ear length, hind-foot length, greatest skull length, condylo-basal length, condylo-canine length, palatal length, rostral height at C¹, braincase breadth, braincase height, mastoid width, interorbital width, zygomatic width, anterior canine width, third molar width, maxillary toothrow, mandibular toothrow, mandibular length, and mandibular height. Genomic DNA was extracted using the Maibo DNA Extraction kit, and the cytochrome b (Cyt b) gene segment was amplified for sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis. GZHU24066, identified as Coelops frithii, is small and tailless, with a complex nose-leaf structure and a forearm length of 41.84 mm (Table 1). It features large, rounded, translucent ears, dorsal fur with blackish-brown tips, and lighter ventral fur. The skull is small, with a low-positioned foramen magnum nearly parallel to the facial plane, aligning with C. frithii characteristics (Fig. 1). GZHU24298, identified as Megaerops niphanae, is larger, tailless, and lacks a nose-leaf, with a forearm length of 53.96 mm (Table 1). It has prominent eyes, ears with matching edge coloration, slightly tubular nostrils, grayish-brown dorsal fur, and lighter brown ventral fur. The skull is larger, with wide eye sockets, an upturned nasal bone, and a slender zygomatic arch, consistent with M. niphanae (Fig. 1). Phylogenetic analysis ofCyt b sequences corroborated these identifications (Fig. 2). These findings confirm the presence of Coelops frithii and Megaerops niphanae in Xizang, China, extending their known distributional ranges and enhancing knowledge of regional biodiversity.

Abstract:Hemiphyllodactylus is a genus characterized by high species diversity, primarily distributed across South Asia, Southeast Asia, and adjacent islands. To date, over 70 species have been described within this genus. Notably, only one species, H. jinpingensis, has been previously recorded in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China. During a herpetofaunal survey of the Dashiwei Doline Group and Sanmenhai Scenic Cluster of the Guangxi Southwest Karst National Park conducted in Leye County, Guangxi, China, we collected two specimens belonging to this genus. The specimens were anesthetized and fixed following standard herpetological protocols. Morphological characteristics were examined and measured with a digital vernier caliper (accuracy:0.1 mm), with reference to established taxonomic keys. For molecular analysis, total genomic DNA was extracted from liver tissue, and the mitochondrial ND2 gene was amplified using primers L4437b and H5934. Phylogenetic trees were constructed using maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) methods via raxmlGUI 1.3 and MrBayes 3.2.4, respectively. MEGA 11 was used for sequence alignment, and calculation of uncorrected p-distances. Morphologically, the specimens closely matched the diagnostic features of H. yanshanensis, a species originally described from Yanshan County, Yunnan Province (Fig. 2 and Table 3). The specimens also exhibited a slightly larger maximum snout-vent length (49.1 mm) compared to the original description (46.3 mm), although all other morphological traits remained consistent. Phylogenetic trees based on ND2 sequences confirmed this identification, with the Guangxi specimens forming a strongly supported clade with the type series of H. yanshanensis (Fig.1). The uncorrected p-distance between these lineages was only 1.89% (Table 2), which is substantially lower than that between H. yanshanensis and other congeneric species (4.51% ~ 28.42%), further validating their conspecificity. This study documents H. yanshanensis for the first time in Guangxi, thereby extending its known distribution from a single locality in Yunnan Province to the northern Karst regions of Guangxi. The finding highlights the biodiversity potential of Guangxi’s Karst ecosystems and underscores the need for continued field surveys and molecular assessments. Additionally, we re-examined historical records of H. jinpingensis from Guangxi, suggesting that previous identifications may be erroneous or unverified. Further taxonomic revisions and collection efforts are necessary to clarify the taxonomic status of these populations and to improve our understanding of species diversity within this cryptic genus.

Abstract:To survey the biodiversity of Chiroptera in northwestern China, thirteen morphologically consistent specimens were collected in August 2023, and August to September 2024 in Xinjiang, Qinghai, and Ningxia, China. The specimens’ morphological and skull characteristics were determined using electronic digital calipers. A phylogenetic tree was constructed based on the Cyt b gene sequence using the maximum likelihood method, and genetic distances were calculated using MEGA7.0 software. The main physical characteristics are as follows:head and body length 61.28 ~ 78.88 mm, forearm length 42.72 ~ 51.65 mm (Appendix 1); ear tips slightly rounded, tongue-shaped, tragus short, less than half the length of the ear; male penis gradually flattened from the base to the end, nearly triangular, and with a small groove at the end; dorsal hairs brownish-yellow as a whole, and ventral hairs grayish-white (Fig. 1). The cranium is 19.65 ~ 21.13 mm in total length (Appendix 2), and the zygomatic arches are thin, slightly widened in the middle (Fig. 2). These above characteristics are consistent with those of Botta’s Serotine (Eptesicus bottae). Phylogenetic analyses using the mitochondrial Cyt b gene molecular marker revealed that the species clustered with Botta’s Serotine from other countries (Fig. 3). The genetic distance to the named subspecies of Botta’s Serotine was only 0.4% (Table 2), which is much smaller than the distances between other species in the genus and between subspecies within the species. Combining morphological and phylogenetic analyses, these bats were identified as Botta’s Serotine. This study confirms the distribution of this species in Xinjiang, Qinghai, and Ningxia, China for the first time.

Abstract:The relationship between humans and wild animals is dynamic and complex, deeply influenced by the interplay of social, economic, political, and ecological factors. This study aims to gain an in-depth understanding of this relationship, properly reconcile the interactions between humans and wild animals, provide theoretical support for wild animal conservation and management, and ultimately promote the harmonious coexistence between humans and wild animals. By synthesizing 99 domestic and international relevant articles published from 2013 to 2024, this study systematically combs the conceptual evolution and research progress of human-wild animal conflicts, coexistence, and interactions, and analyzes the impacts generated by their mutual interactions as well as the corresponding response mechanisms. The study shows that human-wild animal conflicts mainly originate from two aspects:the direct opposition between wild animal behaviors and human interests, and the threats to wild animal survival caused by human activities. In contrast, human-wild animal coexistence manifests as adaptive interactions between the two in shared landscapes and the policy governance measures implemented by humans. Essentially, conflicts and coexistence reflect a dynamic balance of resource competition, behavioral adaptation, and interest bargaining between humans and wild animals. Additionally, a neutral state with no significant positive or negative impacts is widely present in their interactions. Considering the influencing factors of human-wild animal interactions comprehensively, this study proposes a six-dimensional governance strategy, encompassing conflict management, deepening the understanding of human-animal relationships, socio-cultural integration, cross-sector collaboration, science-policy linkage, and enhancing sustainability. This strategy is intended to promote the paradigm shift from conflict control to dynamic symbiosis, providing theoretical support for wild animal conservation and management and further facilitating the achievement of harmonious coexistence between humans and wild animals.

Abstract:

Abstract:

Abstract:

Abstract:

Abstract:

Abstract: